Pakistan's history is a complex intertwining of military rule, political instability, and religious fervor, and few books capture this intricate dance better than Husain Haqqani’s "Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military." In this thought-provoking book, Haqqani, a former Pakistani ambassador to the United States, delves into the long-standing relationship between Pakistan’s military establishment and Islamist groups, showing how this collaboration has shaped the nation’s trajectory since its founding in 1947. In this blog post, we’ll explore the key themes of Haqqani's book and the significant lessons it offers about the dynamics of power in Pakistan.
The Core Thesis: An Alliance of Convenience
At the heart of Haqqani’s argument is the assertion that Pakistan’s military and religious institutions have long been allies, forming a mutually beneficial relationship that serves their respective interests. From the early days of Pakistan’s creation, the military has positioned itself as the guardian of the country’s ideological and territorial frontiers. Haqqani argues that the military leveraged Islam to solidify its control over the state, rallying religious sentiment to justify its interventions in politics and its dominance over civilian governments.
Haqqani traces this alliance back to the partition of British India when Pakistan was created as a separate Muslim-majority state. Over time, this initial justification for the state's existence grew into an entrenched ideology, with religious orthodoxy playing a pivotal role in legitimizing military rule. The military, in turn, supported Islamist groups that could help bolster its influence both domestically and abroad. This convergence of interests has, according to Haqqani, played a central role in shaping Pakistan’s policies and its political landscape.
The Role of Islam in Statecraft
One of the most compelling aspects of Haqqani’s book is its examination of how religion has been used as a tool for governance. While Pakistan was founded as a Muslim-majority state, the role of Islam in its governance has been subject to interpretation and manipulation. Haqqani contends that successive Pakistani leaders, especially military dictators, have used Islam not only to consolidate power but also to garner public support.
For instance, General Zia-ul-Haq's regime (1977–1988) is particularly notable for its Islamization policies, which were designed to legitimize his rule and weaken political opposition. Zia's government implemented Sharia-based laws, such as the Hudood Ordinance, which redefined Pakistan’s legal and social fabric. Haqqani argues that while these policies were often framed as religious imperatives, their primary purpose was political – to strengthen the military's grip on power by aligning with conservative Islamist forces.
The Influence of External Powers: The U.S. and Saudi Arabia
Haqqani also delves into the role of foreign powers in reinforcing the mosque-military nexus. The United States, particularly during the Cold War, viewed Pakistan as a strategic ally against the spread of communism in South Asia. This led to extensive American support for the Pakistani military, which bolstered the institution’s dominance over civilian governments. Haqqani highlights how U.S. military and economic aid inadvertently empowered Pakistan’s Islamist factions, particularly during the Afghan-Soviet war in the 1980s.
Saudi Arabia’s influence is another significant aspect of the book. Haqqani explores how the kingdom has supported conservative religious movements in Pakistan, exporting its Wahhabi interpretation of Islam and providing financial backing to madrasas (religious schools) that have become breeding grounds for radical ideologies. This influx of foreign influence, coupled with the military’s strategic interests, has fueled the rise of Islamist militancy in Pakistan, with consequences that have rippled throughout the region and the world.
The Impact on Democracy
One of the central themes in "Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military" is the detrimental impact this mosque-military alliance has had on democracy in Pakistan. Haqqani argues that the military's repeated interventions in politics, often justified in the name of preserving national unity and defending Islamic values, have severely undermined the country's democratic institutions. Civilian governments, when they have been in power, have struggled to assert their authority in the face of an overbearing military establishment that wields considerable influence over both domestic and foreign policy.
Haqqani highlights the fragility of Pakistan’s political system, where elected leaders are often either removed through military coups or forced into a subservient role, unable to challenge the military's dominance. The cycle of military rule followed by brief periods of civilian government has led to political instability, economic stagnation, and the erosion of public trust in democratic institutions.
Militancy and Terrorism: The Blowback
A critical aspect of Haqqani's analysis is the rise of militant Islamism in Pakistan, which he describes as a form of blowback from the military's long-standing strategy of supporting Islamist groups. Originally, these groups were cultivated to serve Pakistan’s strategic interests, particularly in Kashmir and Afghanistan. However, over time, they grew increasingly radicalized, posing a threat not only to Pakistan's neighbors but to the country itself.
Haqqani traces the roots of Pakistan’s involvement with Islamist militancy to the 1980s, when the country, with U.S. and Saudi support, became the staging ground for the Afghan jihad against Soviet forces. Pakistani intelligence services, particularly the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), played a key role in supporting and arming the Mujahideen fighters. After the Soviet withdrawal, many of these fighters turned their attention to other causes, including the fight against Indian forces in Kashmir. The military's strategy of using militant proxies to achieve its regional goals, Haqqani argues, has backfired, as many of these groups have now turned against the state, fueling a cycle of violence and instability.
Lessons for Pakistan's Future
Haqqani’s "Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military" is more than just a historical account; it offers valuable lessons for Pakistan’s future. Haqqani calls for a reevaluation of the relationship between the military and religious institutions, arguing that Pakistan must disentangle itself from the militant groups it has historically supported if it is to achieve lasting peace and stability.
The book also underscores the importance of strengthening democratic institutions and promoting the rule of law. Haqqani is critical of the military's continued dominance in Pakistan's political life, emphasizing that true democracy can only flourish when civilian leaders are empowered to govern without interference from the military or religious extremists.
Conclusion: A Roadmap for Change
In conclusion, "Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military" provides a nuanced and deeply insightful analysis of Pakistan’s political evolution. Haqqani’s exploration of the military’s strategic use of Islam to maintain control, the role of external powers in shaping Pakistan’s policies, and the rise of militancy offer readers a comprehensive understanding of the challenges facing the country. As Pakistan grapples with ongoing political and security issues, Haqqani’s work serves as a crucial reminder of the need for reform and the dangers of allowing the military-religious nexus to continue unchecked.
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